The distribution of agricultural projects and the accessibility to piped and boreholes water for domestic usages in Sudan fails to deal adequately and equally with the needs of people in the basic nine administrative divisions of the country. The inequality in these two socio-economic sources created an increased inter-provincial migration during the last three decades. This study highlights the influence of accessibility to water for agricultural and domestic uses in the internal migration in Sudan. The study investigated the economic, drought, and famine factors for the internal migration in Sudan as water-related. The context is investigated using what is known as the spearman's rank correlation and student's T-test to elucidate the positive or negative relationship between internal migration and accessibility to water for domestic and agricultural usages. The analysis finds a relationship between internal migration and accessibility to water for both agricultural and household uses. The picture that arises from the analysis is attributed to the unequal opportunities of accessibility to water for household uses, unequal number of irrigated acres allocated for an individual in each province, and to the varying levels of changes in mean annual precipitation between the different regions. The study ends with some suggestions as to how to improve upon the present situation by considering certain environmental and planning implications.

This study examined the relationship between investments in affordable housing by a non-profit organization (Greater Des Moines Habitat for Humanity- GDMH), proximity to public transit and housing prices in the City of Des Moines, in 2000 and 2018. The hypotheses were: the closer the residential unit is to the GDMH housing investment, the higher the housing price in the surroundings of the residential unit; and the closer the residential unit is to public transit stop, the lower the housing price in the surroundings of the residential unit. The Hedonic model was used with 2000 and 2018 housing prices as dependent variables, 2003- 2014 GDMH investments and public transit proximity as independent variables of interest. In addition, control variables such as housing structural characteristics were included in the models’ specifications.

The estimation results indicated that the relationship between housing prices and GDMH investments at the block groups was negative, opposite to what was found in many past studies. In other words, housing unit closer to the investment locations have a lower price compared to those in distance. Based on the Oaxaca Decomposition test, combining 2000 and 2018 data, GDMH investments at the block groups contributed to a decrease in housing price by approximately $2,940 in 18 years (2000-2018), resulting in a decrease of approximately $163 per year). Even before the GDMH investments were started, the 2000 housing price regression models showed a decline in the areas where the 2003-2014 investments were located. Inclusionary zoning strategy was recommended to ensure that affordable housing provision could have a positive relationship with housing prices (Mukhija et al., 2015).

Moreover, the regression estimation results varied in magnitude for 2000 and 2018. Both indicated that the relationship between housing prices and public transit proximity was negative. For 2000, the estimated coefficients had smaller magnitude than in 2018, illustrating that the situation may got worse. Oaxaca results, combining 2000 and 2018 data, indicated that public transit proximity was positively contributing to housing price until around 90m (increased by around $400) but had a negative effect of around $4,000 when the distance was 500m, during the 18 years (2000-2018). As included in the 2035 DART Plan, increasing frequency and numbers of bus routes were recommended.

This paper uses data from the Demographic and Health Survey to analyze the relationship between HIV status and the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics of adults in Lesotho, Malawi, Swaziland and Zimbabwe. We construct the HIV/AIDS risk profile of the average adult, compute the values of age, education and wealth where the estimated probability of infection assumes its highest value, and we determine the percentage of adults for which age, education and wealth are positively correlated with the probability of infection. We find that in all the four countries: (i) the probability of being HIV positive is higher for women than for men; (ii) the likelihood of infection is higher for urban residents than for rural residents; and (iii) there is an inverted-U relationship between age and HIV status. We also find that unlike gender, rural/urban residence and age, the relationship between the probability of HIV infection and wealth, education and marital status varies by country. Our results provide support for country specific and more targeted HIV policies and programs.

The need for a functional addressing system is increasingly becoming critical for the management of the rapid growing cities in developing countries, especially those in Sub-Saharan Africa, where most cities lack a comprehensive and standardized addressing system. This can be attributed in part to rapid urbanization and increased globalization which has resulted in greater integration of people, cities, companies and regions. Moreover, the advancement in geo-spatial technologies and location-based applications also underscore the need for a standardized addressing system. The lack of efficient and standardized addressing system in such cities hinders urban planning as it impedes the delivery of urban services as well as revenue generation by local government authorities. Against this backdrop, this study explores how to develop and implement an effective street addressing system in an evolving urban center of Kumasi Metropolitan Area in Ghana. Specifically, through interviews of officials of the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly and Metropolitan Town and Country Planning Department as well as service providers, the study examined current approaches used in the implementation of the city’s street addressing system. In addition, we conducted a survey of user experiences in the metro area to assess the usefulness of the addressing system for residents in navigating the city. Finally, we developed a prototype GIS-based street address system that goes beyond the existing system of only street names and property numbers and includes a database of land uses, property owners and utilities such as hydrants that can be used for effective management of the urban area, including the management of public service delivery, revenue generation etc. Based on the analysis, we recommend that implementing a standardized addressing system for an evolving urban center should involve the integration of all the various approaches used within the metropolitan area to ensure data interoperability. Moreover, informal settlements and low income suburbs must also be considered as priority areas for future implementation exercises in order to facilitate service delivery. Finally, implementation of street addressing should be accompanied by awareness campaigns to educate residents and institutions on the uses of the addressing system.

The need to provide quality and affordable housing to Ghanaian professionals, including teachers, doctors, nurses, university professors have led the government to explore different alternative investment options in the housing sector. Given the government's embrace of World Bank-supported neo-liberal economic policies, it is not surprising that it opted to shift from government-support and provision approach to a private sector-led housing policy. One visible result of this policy shift is the emergence of private real estate companies in many major cities. This study discusses the effectiveness of past housing policies and the increasing role of the private sector in the housing industry. Using questionnaire survey with real estate companies in Accra, the study examines the problems facing the industry and whether membership of Ghana Real Estate Developers Association has any effect on companies' ability to provide housing for professionals. The study calls for more government regulation in this emerging industry.

This paper examines whether marriage increases the risk of HIV infection among women aged 15-24 in Lesotho, Swaziland and Zimbabwe. We fi nd that in all the three countries, the risk of infection is signifi cantly lower for never-married young women than ever-married young women; however, the difference in risk disappears when we control for age, educational attainment, household wealth, and area of residence. Thus, our result highlights the importance of socio-economic and demographic factors in analyzing the link between marital status and HIV risk among young women. Particularly, our fi ndings show that age and education play a crucial role in determining the level of HIV/AIDS risk for young women. The result also implies that marriage as an institution does not necessarily elevate the risk of HIV infection among young women.

The core objective of this thesis was to draw lessons from the factors of success that underlie the development of Tunisian and Ugandan organic sectors to advance recommendations that can help spur the development of African organics. The study drew on secondary data obtained from an array of sources, supplemented with clarifying information obtained through phone discussions and email exchanges with organic stakeholders in the two countries. The study framed broad and specific questions aimed at identifying and explaining the roles played by different stakeholders, governmental and non-governmental, in fostering the development of the organic sectors in the two countries. Also, the questions enabled the study to identify and account for the roles of organic standards/regulations and certification, organic policies and action plans, organic market development and awareness creation, and organic research, training and extension service in the evolution of Tunisian and Ugandan organic sectors as the most successful in Africa and as one of the world's most highly ranked. Specific lessons included the need to create effective and well-structured institutions at all levels of the organic value chain. These include institutions that will serve as national organic umbrella bodies and other that will undertake activities and provide services such as organic certification and inspection, organic standards development and policy formulation, organic market development and awareness creation, organic research, training and outreach. A mix of state and market was also recommended as a way to advance the development of African organics.

A key feature of the nutrition transition in developed countries is the rapid transformation of the food system towards increasing availability and access to cheaper, and more processed foods. These changes are associated with alterations in dietary behavior with implications for chronic disease risk. However, the process of change in the food system begins with changes in the food retail system and its subsequent effect on consumer behavior. Currently, little is known about the nature of the food marketplace in emerging economies like Ghana, and also how the changing economy and food retail situation are influencing consumer behavior. The current paper presents a case study of the food retail system and consumer food purchase behavior in suburban Accra. Between May and August 2012, an assessment of food retail outlets was carried out in Ashongman Estates, a suburb of Accra. The study involved observations, in-depth interviews with retailers, and a survey of households. Data from the study allowed classification of retail food vendors across the urban food retail system. In addition, data on food purchase preferences and purchase behavior were obtained from a household survey of 75 randomly selected households in Ashongman Estates. The data showed that traditional markets still constitute the most important source of household food purchases. A majority of households (87%) reported preference for traditional markets, and almost all households (99%) indicated traditional markets as their main source for purchasing household food. Foods available from supermarkets were mainly processed foods. However, processed foods are also commonly available through the traditional markets and minimarkets. The preference for traditional markets was attributed to greater variety of foods, lower price, and proximity of food source. Minimarket vendors, including corner stores, table top vendors, hawkers, and fuel station shops that are located within the community, served as an additional food source, complementing food purchases from the traditional markets. The study concluded that although traditional markets remain the main source of household food, interventions are needed to ensure that food markets in the community include access to a variety of fresh produce rather than promote processed foods, in order to promote consumer health.

This thesis examines the farm crisis of the 1980s, by beginning with the ideology underlying the farm policy. At the time of the American Revolution, there was considerable discussion about the nature of governments and the relationship to people. Enlightenment philosophy was influential in this discussion, as well as philosophies from previous ages. As the new American Republic was emerging from the British mercantile system and taking its place in the world capitalist system, there was a difference of opinion as to which policy to adopt for the best development of the resources. For the first 100 years of the Republic, the political factions generally fell within either the free trade philosophy put forth by Adam Smith, or what came to be called the American System of protection.;As each side of this ideological debate gained political control of Congress, the resulting enacted legislation determined the development of banking, money, trade, and the availability of resources (mainly land). The farmer movements (in response to crises) prior to the 1980s were reflections of problems arising from both the establishment of new systems within a new Republic, as well as the political debate over policy. The creation of the Farm Credit System, beginning with the Land Banks in 1916, should have solved the problem of available credit for farmers on terms they could handle with their erratic income cycles. By the crisis of the 1930s, it was apparent that support for farm income would be necessary for farmers to service their debts and keep the rural economies going. When the Farm Credit System was expanded in 1933, Congress also enacted the Agricultural Adjustment Act (which became known as the permanent farm legislation).;This legislation (representing the protectionist ideology) was adjusted and expanded through 1949. After 1953, it was overridden by successive farm bills that would sunset, requiring new legislation to continue to suppress the permanent income supports. Beginning in 1944, the Committee for Economic Development (composed of representatives from 200 of the largest companies and representing free trade ideology) began writing policy papers calling for the removal of resources from farming in order to make it more efficient. In 1971 the Department of Agriculture issued a report that said a few corporate farms could meet the food needs of the country. Farm bills continued to reduce the price supports and take land out of production until the 1996 farm bill removed what remained of the price supports. By examining the 1980s farm crisis through the workings of the Farm Credit System (the country's largest farm lender), it can be shown that the problem was one of low farm income that could not service the debts.;The low farm income was the result of policy based on free trade ideology. This ideology called for the restructuring of agriculture in the belief that it would become more efficient. The move to corporate agriculture is being finalized now. These two different ideologies, that have been the underlying forces in political control over policy since the beginning of the country, are still present today. This creates problems for those who must deal with the restructuring of agriculture that is taking place.